THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY – PART II | Class 12 History Notes

ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

This section examines the arrival and establishment of Islamic traditions in the Indian subcontinent, highlighting the complex interactions between rulers, subjects, and religious communities. From the seventh century onwards, regions in northwest India became part of the Islamic world through Arab conquests and settlements. The Delhi Sultanate (thirteenth century) and later the Mughal Empire (sixteenth century) established Islam as the religion of ruling elites in many areas.

Muslim rulers were theoretically guided by the ulama (Islamic scholars) to govern according to the shari'a, the Islamic law derived from the Qur'an, Hadis (sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad), qiyas (reasoning by analogy), and ijma (community consensus). However, ruling in a religiously diverse land complicated this ideal. Non-Muslims, including Hindus, were categorized as zimmis (protected people) who paid the jizya tax in exchange for protection and religious freedom.

Rulers often adopted flexible policies, granting land and tax exemptions to various religious institutions, including Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish communities. For example, Emperor Akbar issued farmans (imperial orders) allowing Christian priests to build churches, demonstrating religious tolerance. Similarly, Emperor Aurangzeb corresponded respectfully with Hindu jogis, indicating a nuanced relationship between Muslim rulers and non-Muslim religious figures.

Islamic practice among converts varied, with universal pillars of faith combined with local customs. For instance, Khojah Ismailis developed ginan devotional poetry in regional languages, and Arab Muslim traders on the Malabar coast adopted local languages and customs like matriliny. Mosque architecture combined universal Islamic features, such as orientation towards Mecca, with local styles and materials, as seen in mosques in Kerala, Bangladesh, and Kashmir.

Terminology for religious communities evolved over time. Early texts rarely used the term Muslim; instead, people were identified by region or ethnic group. Terms like mlechchha denoted outsiders who did not follow caste norms or speak Sanskrit-derived languages. The terms Hindu and Muslim as religious identities became more defined only later.

📊 Diagram: Fig. 6.7 shows a farman issued by Akbar allowing the building of a church in Khambat. Fig. 6.8 shows a Khojaki manuscript of ginan devotional poems. Figs. 6.9, 6.10, and 6.11 depict mosques in Kerala, Bangladesh, and Kashmir, illustrating the blend of Islamic and local architectural features.

🧪 Activity: Find out about mosque architecture in your area, noting materials used and distinctive features.

🔗 Connection: Leads to the detailed study of Sufism as a major Islamic devotional tradition in India.