Themes In Indian History | Class 12 History Notes

6. TOWNS AND TRADE

From the sixth century BCE, new urban centers emerged across the subcontinent, often as capitals of mahajanapadas. These cities were strategically located along land, riverine, and coastal trade routes. Pataliputra, situated on the Ganga, Ujjayini on land routes, and Puhar near the coast exemplify such urban centers. Cities like Mathura became vibrant hubs of commercial, cultural, and political activity.

Archaeological finds include Northern Black Polished Ware pottery, ornaments, tools, weapons, and figurines made from diverse materials such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta, indicating craft specialization and wealth.

Votive inscriptions from the second century BCE mention donors and their occupations, revealing urban populations comprising washers, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, and kings. Guilds or shrenis, organizations of craft producers and merchants, regulated production, procured raw materials, and marketed goods.

Trade networks extended overland into Central Asia and overseas across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa, West Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. Ports on the Malabar coast, as described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, exported pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, precious stones, and tortoise shell, while importing coins, glass, metals, and coral.

Coinage facilitated trade, with punch-marked silver and copper coins appearing from the sixth century BCE. Indo-Greeks introduced coins bearing rulers’ names and images. The Kushanas issued large hoards of gold coins, matching Roman and Parthian weights, reflecting extensive trade. Tribal republics like the Yaudheyas also minted coins, indicating their economic participation.

The decline in gold coin finds after the sixth century CE is debated, with some attributing it to reduced long-distance trade following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, while others suggest continued trade with evolving networks.

📊 Diagram: Figures 2.6 to 2.9 show inscriptions, coins (punch-marked, Gupta, Yaudheya), and images of urban artifacts illustrating trade and craft production.

🧪 Activity: Discuss the transactions involved in trade and identify which are evident from sources like inscriptions and coins.

🔗 Connection: Prepares for understanding epigraphy and decipherment techniques essential for interpreting inscriptions.